Meta-expansion of transseries

Joris van der Hoeven

CNRS, Dépt. de Mathématiques (Bât. 425)

Université Paris-Sud

91405 Orsay Cedex

France

Email: joris@texmacs.org

November 3, 2023

. This work has partially been supported by the ANR Gecko project.

The asymptotic behaviour of many univariate functions can only be expressed in generalized asymptotic scales, which are not merely formed of powers of a single variable. The computation of asymptotic expansions of functions in such generalized scales may lead to infinite cancellations, which complicate the design and implementation of practical algorithms. In this paper, we introduce a new heuristic technique of “meta-expansions”, which is both simple and efficient in practice, even though the answers are not guaranteed to be correct in general.

Keywords: transseries, asymptotic expansion, algorithm, zero-test

A.M.S. subject classification: 40-04, 41A60, 68W30, 03C64, 03D60, 65B99

1.Introduction

The asymptotic behaviour of many univariate functions can only be expressed in generalized asymptotic scales, which are not merely formed of powers of a single variable.

It was already noticed by Hardy [Har10, Har11] that many interesting functions arising in combinatorics, number theory or physics can be expanded w.r.t. scales formed by so called exp-log functions or L-functions. An exp-log function is constructed from an indeterminate and the real numbers using the field operations, exponentiation and logarithm. An L-function is defined similarly, by adding algebraic functions to our set of building blocks.

However, the class of functions which can be expanded with respect to a scale formed by exp-log functions (or L-functions) is not stable under several simple operations such as integration or functional inversion [Sha93, vdH97, MMvdD97]. More recently, exp-log functions have been generalized so as to allow for expressions with infinite sums, giving rise to the notion of transseries [DG86, É92]. In section 2, we briefly recall some of the most important definitions and properties. For more details, we refer to [vdH06c].

Given an explicit expression (such as an exp-log function), or the solution to an implicit equation, an interesting question is how to find its asymptotic expansion automatically. When working with respect to a generalized asymptotic scale, such as at infinity (), even simple expressions can lead to infinite cancellations:

In many cases, the detection of infinite cancellations can be reduced to the zero-test problem in a suitable class of functions [Sha90, GG92, RSSvdH96, Sal91, vdH97].

However, zero-test problems are often very hard. In the case of exp-log functions, a complete zero-test is only known if Schanuel's conjecture holds [Ric97, vdH98, vdHS06, Ric07]. If we want to expand more general expressions or more general solutions to differential or functional equations, the corresponding zero-test problem tends to get even harder. Consequently, the zero-testing tends to complicate the design of mathematically correct algorithms for more general asymptotic expansions. From the practical point of view, the implementation of robust zero-tests also requires a lot of work. Moreover, mathematically correct zero-tests tend to monopolize the execution time.

In this paper, we will investigate an alternative, more heuristic approach for the computation of asymptotic expansions. We will adopt a similar point of view as a numerical analyst who conceives a real number as the limit of a sequence of better and better approximations. In our case, the asymptotic expansion will be the limit of more and more precise polynomial approximations, where the monomials are taken in the asymptotic scale. As is often the case in numerical analysis, our approach will only be justified by informal arguments and the fact that it seems to work very well in practice.

Besides the analogy with numerical analysis there are a few additional interesting points which deserve to be mentioned. First of all, a finite sequence of better and better approximations gives rise to a second sequence , which can itself be encoded by a generating series

The computation of the expansion of can thus be re-interpreted as the computation of the expansion of , which we therefore regard as the “meta-expansion” of . This technique will be detailed in section 3. Additional complications arise in the context of transseries, because the elements of the asymptotic scale are themselves exponentials of other transseries. The computation of meta-expansions for transseries will be detailed in sections 4 and 5.

A second interesting aspect of meta-expansions is that we may operate on the meta-expansion without changing the underlying expansion. In a complex computation involving lots of auxiliary series, this provides some meta-control to the user. For instance, some subexpressions can be computed with more accuracy (or less accuracy) and one can focus on a specific range of terms. Techniques for the acceleration of convergence play a similar role in numerical analysis [PTVF07, Section 5.3]. Another operation, called “stabilization”, removes those terms in the expansions which change at every few steps. After stabilization, we tend to compute only terms which occur in the final expansion of , even though they usually appear in a different order. In particular, stabilization gives rise to a heuristic zero-test. Meta-operations on meta-expansions will be discussed in section 6.

One motivation behind the present paper was its application to the asymptotic extrapolation of sequences by transseries [vdH06a]. This application requires the computation of discrete sums and products of transseries. In section 7, we have included a small demonstration of our current implementation in the Mathemagix system [vdH02b].

For the purpose of this application, we have mainly considered univariate transseries expansions so far. Of course, the approach of our paper generalizes to expansions in several variables. A natural next step for future developments would be to implement the Newton polygon method for rather general functional equations. Another interesting question is how to re-incorporate theoretically correct zero-tests in our mechanism and how much we really sacrifice when using our heuristic substitute. A few ideas in these directions will be given in section 8, some of which actually go back to [vdH94].

2.Transseries

In this section, we briefly survey some basic properties of transseries. For more details, we refer to [vdH06c, vdH97, É92, MMvdD97, MMvdD99].

Let be a ring and a commutative monomial monoid which is partially ordered by an asymptotic dominance relation . A subset is said to be well-based if it well-quasi-ordered [Pou85, Mil85] for the opposite ordering of and grid-based if it satisfies a bound of the form

(1)

A well-based power series is a formal sum , whose support is well-based. It is classical [Hah07, Hig52] that the set of well-based power series forms a ring. The subset of grid-based power series (i.e. with grid-based support) forms a subring of .

Example 1. Consider the series

with for (i.e. ). Then the first series is grid-based and the second one only well-based.

A family of series in is said to be well-based if is well-based and is finite for every . In that case, the sum with is again in . A linear mapping is said to be strong it preserves well-based summation. Grid-based families and the corresponding notion of strong linearity are defined similarly.

In the case when is a field and is totally ordered, then and are also fields. Furthermore, any non-zero admits a unique dominant monomial with corresponding dominant coefficient and relative remainder such that . We call the dominant term of and define in the case when . The series also admits a canonical decomposition

Here just means that ; more generally, . If is grid-based, then so are , and . If is actually an ordered field, then so are and , by taking for all .

The field of grid-based transseries is a field of the form with additional operators and . The set of transmonomials coincides with the set of exponentials of transseries with . More generally, we have

(2)
(3)

for any (i.e. ) and

(4)
(5)

The construction of is detailed in [vdH06c, Chapter 4]. The construction of fields of well-based transseries is a bit more delicate [DG86, vdH97, Sch01], because one cannot simultaneously ensure stability under exponentiation and infinite summation. However, there is a smallest such field , if we exclude transseries with arbitrarily nested logarithms or exponentials, such as .

Let be one of the fields or . Then admits a lot of additional structure:

  1. There exists a unique strong derivation with , and for all .

  2. There exists a unique strong integration with and for all .

  3. For any positive, infinitely large transseries , there exists a unique strongly linear right composition , with (), and .

  4. Each admits a unique functional inverse .

  5. is real closed. Even better: given a differential polynomial and in with , there exists an with and .

Furthermore, there exist very general implicit function theorems [vdH01, vdH06c], which can be used in order to solve functional equations, when put in a suitable normal form.

The field is highly non-Archimedean. For what follows it will be introduce the asymptotic flatness relation

For , one has if and only if for all .

3.Meta-expansions

The intuitive idea behind meta-expansion is that, from the computational point of view, series usually arise as a sequence of successive approximations of an interesting object. We will make this simple idea operational by taking the approximations to be polynomials. In order to avoid repetitions, we will systematically work in the well-based setting; it is easy to adapt the definitions to the grid-based case.

Let be an effective ring and an effective monomial monoid. Recall that stands for the ring of well-based generalized power series and let be the corresponding set of polynomials (i.e. series with finite support). We define an expander to be a computable well-based sequence of polynomials. Its sum will be called the result of the expander and we say that is an expander for . We also define an approximator to be a computable sequence , such that is well-based and such that for each , there exists an for which is constant for . In that case, the limit is called the result of the approximator.

Clearly, the notions of expander and approximator are variants of another: if is an expander, then with defines an approximator with the same result. Similarly, if is an approximator, then with , () defines an expander with the same result. However, for certain purposes, expanders are more suitable, because an expander can be manipulated via its generating series

For other purposes though, approximators are the more natural choice. As far as notations are concerned, it is convenient to pass from expanders to approximators (and vice versa) by prefixing the index by a semicolon (resp. removing the semicolon).

We will denote by the set of approximable series in which admit an expander (or approximator). The corresponding set of expanders will be denoted by . Given , we use the notation to indicate that represents . Given , we will also use the notation to indicate that is a representation for . For more details on this convention, see [vdH07, Section 2.1].

In practice, expanders and approximators are usually implemented by pointers to an abstract class with a method to compute its coefficients. For more details on how to do this, we refer to [vdH02a]. Let us now show how to implement expanders and approximators for basic operations in .

Constructor
Given a polynomial , an expander and approximator for are given by

It will be convenient to simply regard as a subset of .

Addition
Given , we may compute an expander and an approximator for by

Subtraction is treated in a similar way.

Multiplication
We may define expanders and approximators for products in the same way as for addition:

(6)
(7)

However, a subtlety occurs here. Consider for instance the case when and , so that and . Contrary to what happened in the case of addition, the definitions (6) and (7) do not coincide in the sense that . Indeed, we respectively find

As a general rule, the manipulation of expanders tends to be a bit more economic from the computational point of view, its coefficients being smaller in size.

Left composition with power series
Let be a computable formal power series and let be infinitesimal. Then we may compute an expander for using

(8)

Notice that the individual coefficients of need not be infinitesimal. Besides, the composition is usually not a polynomial. Therefore, we have forced to become infinitesimal using a multiplication by . This is justified by the fact that

Multiplication of by corresponds to delaying the approximation process of .

Inversion
Assume now that is a field and a totally ordered group. The inverse of a series may be computed using left composition with power series:

(9)

Unfortunately, there exists no general algorithm for the computation of the dominant term . We will therefore assume the existence of an oracle for this purpose. In section 6, we will present a heuristic algorithm which can be used in practice.

Fixed points
A general technique for the resolution of functional equations is to rewrite then into the form

and apply a fixed-point theorem. In our case, this requires a well-based operator for which we can prove that admits a well-based limit in . The obvious expander for is given by

For some general fixed-point theorems for sequences of this kind, we refer to [vdH01] and [vdH06c, Chapter 6].

4.Meta-expansion of transseries

In order to compute with well-based transseries in , we take our coefficients in an effective subfield of and our monomials in an effective subgroup of . Moreover, the monomials in which are not iterated logarithms are themselves exponentials of approximable transseries.

More precisely, elements in are represented by monomials which are of one of the following forms:

  1. either for some ;

  2. or , with .

In the first case, the exponential height of is defined to be zero and in the second case, we set .

Elements are multiplied using and inverted using . Here : if , then ; if , then . The asymptotic ordering on is implemented using

and therefore relies on an oracle for the computation of . Setting , we notice that heuristic algorithms for the computation of this dominant term recursively need to compare elements in with respect to . The termination of the recursion is based on the fact that .

The main additional operations for the manipulation of transseries are exponentiation and logarithm. Since exponentiation relies on canonical decompositions, we start with the general operation of restriction of support.

Restriction of support
Given , we define the restriction of to by

If the subset is a computable, i.e. admits a computable membership test, then the mapping is computable. In particular, given , we may compute using

Now making continued use of our oracle for the computation of dominant terms, the sets , and are computable. Consequently, we have algorithms to compute , and .

Logarithm and exponentiation
Assume that is closed under logarithm (for positive elements) and exponentiation. Then the formulas (25) and our algorithms for canonical decomposition and left composition with power series yield a way to compute logarithms and exponentials of elements in . The smallest subfield of which is stable under exponentiation and logarithm is called the field of exp-log constants. There exists a zero-test for this field which relies on Schanuel's conjecture for its termination [Ric97].

Example 2. Consider the following example from [RSSvdH96]:

When computing an expander with the routines presented so far, we obtain

Remark 3. In practice, it is useful to have efficient algorithms for the manipulation of transmonomials. In a similar way as in [RSSvdH96, vdH97, vdH06c], we therefore write transmonomials as power products with respect to a transbasis which is constructed incrementally during the computations. In our well-based setting, we merely require that the satisfy the hypotheses

TB1

for some .

TB2

.

TB3

.

In the grid-based setting TB2 may be replaced by the stronger requirement that can be expanded w.r.t. for all .

5.Other operations on transseries

Let us now come to the more interesting operations on transseries. Differentiation and composition rely on the general principle of extension by strong linearity.

Extension by strong linearity
Let be a map such that each well-based subset of is mapped into a well-based family . Then there exists a unique strongly linear extension of . If is computable, then we may compute the restriction of to by

Differentiation
The derivative of an approximable transseries in is computed using extension by strong linearity. The derivative of a transmonomial is computed recursively: and .

Composition
Right composition with a fixed is done similarly. For arbitrary transseries in , we use extension by strong linearity. Transmonomials are handled recursively: and .

It can be shown [vdH06c, vdH97] that the derivation w.r.t. admits a unique strongly linear right inverse with the “distinguished property” that for all . One way to construct is to first compute its “trace” which is the unique strongly linear operator with on . We then compute by solving the implicit equation

(10)

One may either apply (10) for monomials and extend by strong linearity, or apply it directly for arbitrary transseries .

Trace of the distinguished integration
The trace of a transmonomial is computed using the formula

We next extend by strong linearity.

Distinguished integration
We may rewrite (10) in operator form

and define an expander for this operator:

Then distinguished integration can be regarded as the application of this operator expander to another expander :

We also notice that is a fixed-point of the operator

Adapting our general mechanism for the computation of fixed points for operators instead of series, we find as the natural expander of .

Functional inversion of transseries can be done using formulas in [vdH06c, Section 5.4] and we will not detail this operation here. Two other interesting operations are finite differences and discrete summation:

We implemented these operations because they are critically needed in an algorithm for the asymptotic extrapolation of sequences [vdH06a]. Modulo compositions with and , they are related to finite quotients and discrete products:

Our algorithm for right-composition clearly yields a way to compute for . The distinguished summation is the unique distinguished strongly linear right-inverse of , i.e. and for all . It therefore suffices to show how to compute for monomials . Three different cases need to be distinguished :

Flat discrete summation
Assuming (i.e. ), we compute by solving the equation

which yields a solution

The application of the operator

to is computed in a similar way as in the case of distinguished integration. In fact, the expander can directly be applied to expanders with for all . Moreover, this application preserves grid-basedness.

Moderate discrete summation
In the case when (i.e. ), let be such that with . We now search for a solution to of the form , which leads to the equation

(11)

We rewrite this equation in operator form

and we invert the operator as in the flat case. No integration is needed this time, since . Again, the grid-based property is preserved by moderate discrete summation.

Steep discrete summation
In the case when (i.e. ), we have to solve the equation

If , then this is done by computing a fixed point for the operator

If , then we compute a fixed point for the operator

It can be shown that is grid-based if is grid-based and there exists a such that for all .

6.Meta-operations on expanders

So far, we have not really exploited the extra level of abstraction provided by expanders. In this section, we will describe several “meta-operations” on expanders. These operations do not affect the series being represented, but rather concern qualitative aspects of the approximation process: they guide the rate of convergence, the terms which appear first, etc. Based on the process of “stabilization”, we will also describe a heuristic zero-test and a heuristic method for the computation of dominant terms.

Shortening
In the algorithm for left composition with formal power series, we have already observed that the expanders and represent the same series. More generally, given a computable function with , we define the shortening operator by

In the case when is a constant function, we have

The shortening operator is typically used for the expansion of expressions which involve an expander , such that the expression size of tends to grow very rapidly with . For instance, we may prefer to compute a sum using the expander instead of .

Lengthening
Given a computable function , the lengthening operator is defined by

In the case when is a constant function, we have

During the expansion of an expression, the lengthening operator may for instance be used in order to boost the precision of a subexpression. We may also use it as a substitute for the order parameter of a typical expansion command. E.g., we would simply display in order to show an additional terms of .

Stabilization
An even more interesting meta-operation is stabilization. Given a computable function , we define it by

The stabilization operator removes all terms from the expansion which are still subject to changes during the next approximations. Even for small values of , such as , we usually have

(12)

where

In particular, the successive approximations usually only contain terms which occur in the final result .

Example 4. Let us reconsider the function from example 2. When approximating using instead of , we get:

Example 5. An example for which (12) is not satisfied for any finite is the expander

which arises during the computation of

Indeed, the first terms of are given by

In this kind of situations, it may be necessary to consider more powerful stabilizations of the form .

Dominant terms
In the case when (12) holds, we have

(13)

for a sufficiently large value of . When taking and fixed, the formula (13) also provides us with a reasonable heuristic for the computation of (which implies a zero-test for ). Of course, the values and should not be taken too small, so as to provide sufficient robustness. On the other hand, large values of and may lead to unacceptable computation times. Our current compromise has worked for all practical examples we have tried so far.

Remark 6. Our claim that relatively small values of and provide sufficient robustness may seem very surprising at first sight and is indeed the remarkable feature which make meta-expansions so useful in our opinion. The intuitive justification lies in the fact that we expand in a really massive way all our operations and all our parameters. On the one hand, canceling terms usually change after every step before they vanish, and are thereby “stabilized out”. On the other hand, deeper combinations of parameters which lead to a genuine non-canceling contribution can usually be detected after a few steps. In particular, small power series expressions with large valuations [vdH06b] tend to be less harmful in our context.

Remark 7. Let be the class of expanders which are obtained by applying our expansion algorithms to exp-log expressions. From a theoretical point of view, it might be interesting to investigate the existence of a simple computable function such that, for any , there exists a with

Generalizing example 5, we see that we must take . Would be sufficient?

Printing
Another application of the stabilization operator is printing. The default printing method of an expander might for instance be to print for suitable values of and (e.g. and ). This method can be further improved as follows: first compute and with . When considering the successive terms of in decreasing order for , we may decompose the expansion in blocks

(14)

with , , and . In (14), we now replace each non-zero by the expression , and print the result. For instance, if

then we print

An interesting feature of this way of printing is that it allows us to see some of the remaining terms after the first leading terms. In certain cases, such as

one might prefer to suppress some of these extra terms. One criterion for suppression could be the following: given the last term of some and any term of , suppress all terms with for some .

Dominant bias
If you are mainly interested in the first terms of an expansion, then you may want to give early terms a higher priority during the computations. Given an expander , let denote the -th term in the polynomial (in decreasing order for ). If is larger than the number of terms of , then we set . Now for each computable increasing function , we define

In the case when , then we have

We call a dominant bias operator. We may typically apply it on auxiliary series with a sharp increase of the number of terms of with . More generally, it is possible to define operators which favour terms at the tail, in the middle, or close to a specified monomial. However, these generalization do not seem to have any practical applications, at first sight.

7.Expansion gallery

Most of the algorithms described in this paper have been implemented inside the Mathemagix system [vdH02b]. Below, we illustrate the implementation with a sample session.

7.1.Exp-log functions

Mmx]
use "numerix"; use "algebramix"; use "multimix"; use "symbolix";
Mmx]
x == infinity ('x);
Mmx]
1 / (x + 1)

Mmx]
1 / (x + log x + log log x)

Mmx]
1 / (1 + 1/x + 1/exp x)

Mmx]
1 / (1 + 1/x + 1/exp x) - 1 / (1 + 1/x)

Mmx]
exp (x + exp (-exp x)) - exp (x)

Mmx]
exp (exp (x) / (x + 1))

7.2.Calculus

Mmx]
derive (exp (exp (x) / (x + 1)), x)

Mmx]
integrate (exp (x^2), x)

Mmx]
integrate (x^x, x)

Mmx]
sum (x^4, x)

Mmx]
product (x, x)

Mmx]
lengthen (product (x, x), 8)

Mmx]
product (log x, x)

7.3.Functional equations

Mmx]
fixed_point (f :-> log x + f @ (log x))

Mmx]
la == derive (fixed_point (f :-> log x + f @ (log x)), x)

Mmx]
mu == la * la + 2 * derive (la, x)

Mmx]
fixed_point (f :-> 1/x + f @ (x^2) + f @ (x^x))

8.Towards more robustness

Even though the expansion algorithms developed so far are usually sufficient for applications, they lack robustness in several ways. First of all, we have used heuristic algorithms for zero-testing and the computation of dominant terms. Some of our algorithms crucially depend on the correctness of these heuristic algorithms. For instance, our algorithm for the computation of an inverse yields an erroneous result if is computed incorrectly. Finally, expanders only asymptotically tend to . Even if we know that a given monomial is in the support of , we do not know how large should be in order to guarantee that . In this section, we describe a few ideas which may be used to increase the robustness of our algorithms.

Auto-correction
The strategy of auto-correction can be used to reduce the impact of incorrect answers of heuristic algorithms. For instance, in order to invert a series , we started with the computation of . Instead, we might imagine that the expander of is allowed to adjust its initial value of at later stages of the approximation. More precisely, for and a suitable , let be the dominant term of and consider the expander

Then we may define a new expander by taking the diagonal

In order to have , it now suffices to have (), instead of . Of course, in nasty cases, it might still happen that for all . In other words, the strategy of auto-correction produces no miracles and does not substitute for a genuine zero-test. Even in the case when the stabilization operator is sufficiently powerful to guarantee for a certain class of expanders, one should keep in mind that the result only becomes correct at the limit; we still don't know how many terms need to be computed.

From a practical point, the strategy of auto-correction is easy to implement on the series level from section 3: in our example of inversion, the expander may simply keep in memory for the largest considered so far and only update its value when changes. Implementations become more involved when considering recursive transseries expansions, as in section 4. Indeed, in this more general setting, we also need to correct erroneous outcomes for the asymptotic ordering , which recursively relies on the orderings and for expanders of lower exponential height. In order to generalize the idea, one thus has to define sequences of approximations and for and , and systematically work with the relations and when making decisions for expansions at stage .

Reduction to zero-testing
In the case when we are interested in expansions of functions inside a given class , it sometimes happens that admits a zero-test. For instance, if is the class of exp-log functions, then a zero-test can be given whose correctness relies on Schanuel's conjecture [vdH98, Ric97].

An interesting question is whether we can use a zero-test in in order to design a non-heuristic algorithm for the computation of dominant terms. In order to make this work, we have to be able to detect infinite cancellations of terms which occur in expressions such as . A general mechanism for doing this is to refine the mechanism of expanders by indexing over a suitable well-based set.

More precisely, given an abstract well-based set (i.e. a set which is well-quasi-ordered for the opposite ordering of ), we define a sequence of finite subsets of by . In general, the sequence is transfinite, but if we have , then we say that is accessible. We say that is computable, if for any finite subset , we can compute . In particular, this implies the sequence to be computable.

A well-based expander is a computable well-based family , indexed by a computable accessible well-based set . A well-based expander is the natural refinement of an expander in the usual sense, by regrouping terms . We say that is a termwise well-based expander if each is of the form and the mapping is increasing. Notice that is automatically well-based if is increasing.

Recall that the initial segment generated by a finite subset is defined by . Now consider a termwise well-based expander such that for any finite subset . If the mapping is effective, then we call an expander over . For the operations we have considered in this paper, it should be possible to replace the usual notion of expander by expanders of (assuming that is stable under the operation). This was already shown in [vdH94] for the basic operations from section 3 and still waits to be worked out for the other ones.

Given an expander over , the zero-test in may now be used in order to compute the set of dominant monomials of . The algorithm again goes back to [vdH94]:

  1. Let .

  2. Replace by a minimal subset with .

  3. Let and for each .

  4. If there exists an with , then set

    and go to step 2.

  5. Return .

Computable well-based series
Our notion of approximable well-based series is the natural counterpart of the concept of approximable real numbers: a real number is said to be approximable if there exists a computable sequence , which converges to . A stronger and more robust notion is the one of computable real numbers: we say that is computable, if there exists a computable function which takes on input and produces an approximation with . It is natural to search for an analogue notion of computable well-based series.

There are really two aspects to a computable well-based series . On the one hand, we should be able to compute its coefficient for any monomial . On the other hand, its support should be sufficiently effective. In the case of ordinary power series , the second issue does not really arise, because the support is necessarily included in the well-based set . In general, one might require that is given by a termwise well-based expander, which yields quite a lot of information about .

As to the computation of coefficients , consider the case of a product , where is totally ordered and and are given by and with and . Given , we hit the problem that we don't have any a priori information on the asymptotic behaviour of the and the . In order to design an algorithm for the computation of , we need more control over this asymptotic behaviour.

In the grid-based setting, we are really computing with multivariate power series, and no real difficulties arise. In the well-based setting, things get more involved. When we restrict our attention to transseries, there are ways to represent and compute with monomial cuts [vdH06c, Chapter 9]. A monomial cut is the analogue of a Dedekind cut for the set of transmonomials instead of . Given a termwise well-based expander , any initial segment naturally induces a transseries and a monomial cut, called the width of . For a fully satisfactory definition of computable well-based series, one should be able to compute these widths. However, we have not investigated this matter in detail yet.

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